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Journal Articles
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Book Chapters
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Under Review & In Preparation
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For a Popular Audience
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2018:
Social class disparities in higher education and professional workplaces: The role of cultural mismatch.
Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M., & Dittmann, A. G. (2018). Current Directions in Psychological Science. doi: 10.1177/0963721418806506
Difference matters: Teaching students a contextual theory of difference can help them succeed.
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2018). Perspectives on Psychological Science. doi: 10.1177/1745691618797957
Empowerment through difference: An online difference-education intervention closes the social class achievement gap.
Townsend, S. S. M., Stephens, N. M., Smallets, S., & Hamedani, M. G. (2018). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. doi: 10.1177/0146167218804548
Should job applicants be excited or calm?: The role of culture and ideal affect in employment settings.
Bencharit, L. Z., Ho, Y. W., Fung, H., Yeung, D., Stephens, N., Romero-Canyas, R., & Tsai, J. L. (2018). Emotion. doi: 10.1037/emo0000444
2017:
Award to distinguished scientific early career contributions to psychology: Nicole M. Stephens.
Stephens, N. M. (2017). American Psychological Association.
Editorial overview: Inequality and social class: The psychological and behavioral consequences of inequality and social class: A theoretical integration.
Markus, H. R., & Stephens, N. M. (2017). Current Opinion in Psychology, 18, 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.11.001
Choice as an engine of analytic thought.
Savani, K., Stephens, N. M., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146, 1234-1246. doi: 10.1037/xge0000351
Interventions aimed at closing the social class achievement gap in education: changing individuals, structures, and construals.
Dittmann, A. G., & Stephens, N. M. (2017). Current Opinion in Psychology, 18, 111-116. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.044
The experience of Low-SES students in higher education: Psychological barriers to success and interventions to reduce social-class inequality.
Jury, M., Smeding, A. Stephens, N. M., Nelson, J., Aelenei, C., & Darnon, C. (2017). Journal of Social Issues, 73, 16-34. doi: 10.1111/josi.12202
2016:
Beyond one-size-fits-all: Tailoring diversity approaches to the representation of social groups.
Apfelbaum, E. P., Stephens, N. M., & Reagans, R. (2016). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111, 547-566. doi: 10.1037/pspi0000071
2015:
Feeling at home in college: Fortifying school-relevant selves to reduce social class disparities in higher education.
Stephens, N. M., Brannon, T. N., Markus, H. R., & Nelson, J. E. (2015). Social Issues and Policy Review, 9, 1-24. doi: 10.1111/sipr.12008
The norms that drive behavior: Implications for Cultural Mismatch Theory.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2015). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46, 1304-1306. doi: 10.1177/0022022115600264
A difference-education intervention equips first-generation college students to thrive in the face of stressful college situations.
Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M., Hamedani, M. G., Destin, M., & Manzo, V. (2015). Psychological Science, 26, 1556-1566. doi: 10.1177/0956797615593501
2014:
Lower social class does not (always) mean greater interdependence: Women in poverty have fewer social resources than working-class women.
Stephens, N. M., Cameron, J. S., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2014). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45, 1060-1072. doi: 10.1177/0022022114534768
Closing the social-class achievement gap: A difference-education intervention improves first-generation students' academic performance and all students' college transition.
Stephens, N.M., Hamedani, M. H., & Destin, M. (2014). Psychological Science, 25, 943-953. doi: 10.1177/0956797613518349
Social class culture cycles: How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality.
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, T. (2014). Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 611-634. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115143
2013:
Who explains Hurricane Katrina and the Chilean earthquake as an act of God? The experience of extreme hardship predicts religious meaning-making.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., & Hamedani, M. G. (2013). Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 44, 607-619. doi: 10.1177/0022022112454330
How can incentives improve the success of disadvantaged college students? Insights from the Social Sciences.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2013). Policy brief for a project sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation at the George Washington University.
Rank is not enough: Why we need a sociocultural perspective to understand social class.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2013). Psychological Inquiry, 24, 126-130. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2013.795099
2012:
How the media frames the immigration debate: The critical role of location and politics.
Fryberg, S. A., Stephens, N. M., Covarrubias, R., Markus, H. R., Carter, E. D., Laiduc, G. A., and Salido, A. J. (2012). Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 12, 96-112. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011.01259.x
A road map for an emerging psychology of social class.
Kraus, M., & Stephens, N. M. (2012). Social Psychology and Personality Compass, 6, 642-656. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00453.x
Unseen disadvantage: How American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1178-1197. doi: 10.1037/a0027143
Social class disparities in health and education: Reducing inequality by applying a sociocultural self model of behavior.
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Fryberg, S. A. (2012). Psychological Review, 119(4), 723-744. doi: 10.1037/a0029028
A cultural mismatch: Independent cultural norms produce greater increases in cortisol and more negative emotions among first-generation college students.
Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, T. (2012). Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1389-1393. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2012.07.008
2007-2011:
The unanticipated interpersonal and societal consequences of choice: Victim-blaming and reduced support for the public good.
Savani, K., Stephens, N. M., & Markus, H. R. (2011). Psychological Science, 22, 795-802. doi: 10.1177/0956797611407928
When choice does not equal freedom: A sociocultural analysis of agency in working-class contexts.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., & Markus, H. R. (2011). Social and Personality Psychology Science, 2, 33-41. doi: 10.1177/1948550610378757
Opting out or denying discrimination? How the framework of free choice in American society influences perceptions of gender inequality.
Stephens, N. M., & Levine, C. S. (2011). Psychological Science, 22, 1231-1236. doi: 10.1177/0956797611417260
When the world is colorblind, American Indians are invisible.
Fryberg, S. A., & Stephens, N. M. (2010). Psychological Inquiry, 21, 115-119. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2010.483847
Using culture to explain behavior: An integrative cultural approach.
Sheperd, H., & Stephens, N. M. (2010). Social Psychology Quarterly, 73, 353-354. doi: 10.1177/0190272510391422
Why did they "choose" to stay? Perspectives of the Hurricane Katrina observers and survivors.
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., Markus, H. R., Bergsieker, H. B., & Eloul, L. (2009). Psychological Science, 20, 878-886. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02386.x
Choice as an act of meaning: The case of social class.
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2007). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 814-830. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.814
Social class disparities in higher education and professional workplaces: The role of cultural mismatch.
Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M., & Dittmann, A. G. (2018). Current Directions in Psychological Science. doi: 10.1177/0963721418806506
Difference matters: Teaching students a contextual theory of difference can help them succeed.
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2018). Perspectives on Psychological Science. doi: 10.1177/1745691618797957
Empowerment through difference: An online difference-education intervention closes the social class achievement gap.
Townsend, S. S. M., Stephens, N. M., Smallets, S., & Hamedani, M. G. (2018). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. doi: 10.1177/0146167218804548
- Supplemental materials - Stories
- Supplemental materials - Study materials
Should job applicants be excited or calm?: The role of culture and ideal affect in employment settings.
Bencharit, L. Z., Ho, Y. W., Fung, H., Yeung, D., Stephens, N., Romero-Canyas, R., & Tsai, J. L. (2018). Emotion. doi: 10.1037/emo0000444
2017:
Award to distinguished scientific early career contributions to psychology: Nicole M. Stephens.
Stephens, N. M. (2017). American Psychological Association.
Editorial overview: Inequality and social class: The psychological and behavioral consequences of inequality and social class: A theoretical integration.
Markus, H. R., & Stephens, N. M. (2017). Current Opinion in Psychology, 18, 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.11.001
Choice as an engine of analytic thought.
Savani, K., Stephens, N. M., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146, 1234-1246. doi: 10.1037/xge0000351
Interventions aimed at closing the social class achievement gap in education: changing individuals, structures, and construals.
Dittmann, A. G., & Stephens, N. M. (2017). Current Opinion in Psychology, 18, 111-116. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.044
The experience of Low-SES students in higher education: Psychological barriers to success and interventions to reduce social-class inequality.
Jury, M., Smeding, A. Stephens, N. M., Nelson, J., Aelenei, C., & Darnon, C. (2017). Journal of Social Issues, 73, 16-34. doi: 10.1111/josi.12202
2016:
Beyond one-size-fits-all: Tailoring diversity approaches to the representation of social groups.
Apfelbaum, E. P., Stephens, N. M., & Reagans, R. (2016). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111, 547-566. doi: 10.1037/pspi0000071
2015:
Feeling at home in college: Fortifying school-relevant selves to reduce social class disparities in higher education.
Stephens, N. M., Brannon, T. N., Markus, H. R., & Nelson, J. E. (2015). Social Issues and Policy Review, 9, 1-24. doi: 10.1111/sipr.12008
The norms that drive behavior: Implications for Cultural Mismatch Theory.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2015). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46, 1304-1306. doi: 10.1177/0022022115600264
A difference-education intervention equips first-generation college students to thrive in the face of stressful college situations.
Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M., Hamedani, M. G., Destin, M., & Manzo, V. (2015). Psychological Science, 26, 1556-1566. doi: 10.1177/0956797615593501
2014:
Lower social class does not (always) mean greater interdependence: Women in poverty have fewer social resources than working-class women.
Stephens, N. M., Cameron, J. S., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2014). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45, 1060-1072. doi: 10.1177/0022022114534768
Closing the social-class achievement gap: A difference-education intervention improves first-generation students' academic performance and all students' college transition.
Stephens, N.M., Hamedani, M. H., & Destin, M. (2014). Psychological Science, 25, 943-953. doi: 10.1177/0956797613518349
Social class culture cycles: How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality.
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, T. (2014). Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 611-634. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115143
2013:
Who explains Hurricane Katrina and the Chilean earthquake as an act of God? The experience of extreme hardship predicts religious meaning-making.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., & Hamedani, M. G. (2013). Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 44, 607-619. doi: 10.1177/0022022112454330
How can incentives improve the success of disadvantaged college students? Insights from the Social Sciences.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2013). Policy brief for a project sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation at the George Washington University.
Rank is not enough: Why we need a sociocultural perspective to understand social class.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2013). Psychological Inquiry, 24, 126-130. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2013.795099
2012:
How the media frames the immigration debate: The critical role of location and politics.
Fryberg, S. A., Stephens, N. M., Covarrubias, R., Markus, H. R., Carter, E. D., Laiduc, G. A., and Salido, A. J. (2012). Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 12, 96-112. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011.01259.x
A road map for an emerging psychology of social class.
Kraus, M., & Stephens, N. M. (2012). Social Psychology and Personality Compass, 6, 642-656. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00453.x
Unseen disadvantage: How American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1178-1197. doi: 10.1037/a0027143
- Winner of Stanley Reiter Best Paper Award: judged to be the best paper among those published by the Kellogg faculty in the preceding four years
Social class disparities in health and education: Reducing inequality by applying a sociocultural self model of behavior.
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Fryberg, S. A. (2012). Psychological Review, 119(4), 723-744. doi: 10.1037/a0029028
- Winner of Otto Klineberg Intercultural and International Relations Award
A cultural mismatch: Independent cultural norms produce greater increases in cortisol and more negative emotions among first-generation college students.
Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, T. (2012). Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1389-1393. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2012.07.008
2007-2011:
The unanticipated interpersonal and societal consequences of choice: Victim-blaming and reduced support for the public good.
Savani, K., Stephens, N. M., & Markus, H. R. (2011). Psychological Science, 22, 795-802. doi: 10.1177/0956797611407928
When choice does not equal freedom: A sociocultural analysis of agency in working-class contexts.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., & Markus, H. R. (2011). Social and Personality Psychology Science, 2, 33-41. doi: 10.1177/1948550610378757
Opting out or denying discrimination? How the framework of free choice in American society influences perceptions of gender inequality.
Stephens, N. M., & Levine, C. S. (2011). Psychological Science, 22, 1231-1236. doi: 10.1177/0956797611417260
When the world is colorblind, American Indians are invisible.
Fryberg, S. A., & Stephens, N. M. (2010). Psychological Inquiry, 21, 115-119. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2010.483847
Using culture to explain behavior: An integrative cultural approach.
Sheperd, H., & Stephens, N. M. (2010). Social Psychology Quarterly, 73, 353-354. doi: 10.1177/0190272510391422
Why did they "choose" to stay? Perspectives of the Hurricane Katrina observers and survivors.
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., Markus, H. R., Bergsieker, H. B., & Eloul, L. (2009). Psychological Science, 20, 878-886. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02386.x
Choice as an act of meaning: The case of social class.
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2007). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 814-830. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.814
In Press:
Difference-education: Improving disadvantaged students’ academic outcomes by changing their theory of difference.
Stephens, N. M. Hamedani, M. G., & Townsend, S. S. M. (in press). In G. Walton & A. Crum (Eds.) Handbook of Wise Interventions: How Social-Psychological Insights Can Help Solve Problems.
2017:
Social class and models of competence: How gateway institutions disadvantage working-class Americans and how to intervene.
Stephens, N. M., Dittmann, A. G., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2017). In C. Dweck, A. Elliot, & D. Yeager (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (2nd Edition): Theory and application. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
2015:
How can financial incentives improve the success of disadvantaged college students? Insights from the social sciences.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2015). In B. Castleman, S. Schwartz & S. Baum (Eds.), Decision making for student success: Behavioral insights to improve college access and persistence. New York, NY: Routledge.
2012:
It's your choice: How the middle-class model of independence disadvantages working-class Americans.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., & Markus, H. R. (2012). In S. T. Fiske & H. R. Markus (Eds.), Facing social class: How societal rank influences interaction (pp. 87-106). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Difference-education: Improving disadvantaged students’ academic outcomes by changing their theory of difference.
Stephens, N. M. Hamedani, M. G., & Townsend, S. S. M. (in press). In G. Walton & A. Crum (Eds.) Handbook of Wise Interventions: How Social-Psychological Insights Can Help Solve Problems.
2017:
Social class and models of competence: How gateway institutions disadvantage working-class Americans and how to intervene.
Stephens, N. M., Dittmann, A. G., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2017). In C. Dweck, A. Elliot, & D. Yeager (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (2nd Edition): Theory and application. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
2015:
How can financial incentives improve the success of disadvantaged college students? Insights from the social sciences.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2015). In B. Castleman, S. Schwartz & S. Baum (Eds.), Decision making for student success: Behavioral insights to improve college access and persistence. New York, NY: Routledge.
2012:
It's your choice: How the middle-class model of independence disadvantages working-class Americans.
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., & Markus, H. R. (2012). In S. T. Fiske & H. R. Markus (Eds.), Facing social class: How societal rank influences interaction (pp. 87-106). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Papers Under Review:
College Financial Resources Shape the Impact of a Cultural Match for Working-Class Students.
Dittmann, A. G., Birnbaum, H., & Stephens, N. M. (Under review). Social Psychological and Personality Science.
An interdependence advantage: Working together leads groups from working-class contexts to outperform groups from middle-class contexts.
Dittmann, A. G., Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (Invited revision). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
How Initial Cultural Mismatch Affects First-Generation Students Throughout College.
Phillips, L. T., Stephens, N.M., Townsend, S.S.M., & Goudeau, S. (Invited revision). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Does gender raise the ethical bar? Exploring the punishment of ethical violations at work.
Kennedy, J. A., McDonnell, M. H., & Stephens, N. M. (Under review). Organization Science.
Uncovering the light and dark sides of grit by separately considering its underlying facets.
Smallets, S., Townsend, S. S. M., & Stephens, N. M. (Under review). Social Psychological and Personality Science.
Papers in Preparation:
Working in middle-class organizations, but still working class: How social class background impacts subjective workplace experience.
Dittmann, A. G., Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M.
Difference-education improves first-generation students’ grades throughout college and increases enrollment in diversity courses.
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., Townsend, S. S. M., Destin, M.
A diversity ideology intervention: Multiculturalism reduces the racial achievement gap.
Birnbaum, H., Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M, & Hamedani, M. G.
Toward an integrated socio-cultural understanding of inequality in education: A social class-academic contexts (mis)match model.
Goudeau, S., Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Croizet, J. C.
Do students take advantage of diversity in college? How intergroup interactions affect students’ experiences and academic outcomes over time.
Carey, R. M., Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M. & Hamedani, M. Y. G.
College Financial Resources Shape the Impact of a Cultural Match for Working-Class Students.
Dittmann, A. G., Birnbaum, H., & Stephens, N. M. (Under review). Social Psychological and Personality Science.
An interdependence advantage: Working together leads groups from working-class contexts to outperform groups from middle-class contexts.
Dittmann, A. G., Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (Invited revision). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
How Initial Cultural Mismatch Affects First-Generation Students Throughout College.
Phillips, L. T., Stephens, N.M., Townsend, S.S.M., & Goudeau, S. (Invited revision). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Does gender raise the ethical bar? Exploring the punishment of ethical violations at work.
Kennedy, J. A., McDonnell, M. H., & Stephens, N. M. (Under review). Organization Science.
Uncovering the light and dark sides of grit by separately considering its underlying facets.
Smallets, S., Townsend, S. S. M., & Stephens, N. M. (Under review). Social Psychological and Personality Science.
Papers in Preparation:
Working in middle-class organizations, but still working class: How social class background impacts subjective workplace experience.
Dittmann, A. G., Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M.
Difference-education improves first-generation students’ grades throughout college and increases enrollment in diversity courses.
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., Townsend, S. S. M., Destin, M.
A diversity ideology intervention: Multiculturalism reduces the racial achievement gap.
Birnbaum, H., Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M, & Hamedani, M. G.
Toward an integrated socio-cultural understanding of inequality in education: A social class-academic contexts (mis)match model.
Goudeau, S., Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Croizet, J. C.
Do students take advantage of diversity in college? How intergroup interactions affect students’ experiences and academic outcomes over time.
Carey, R. M., Stephens, N. M., Townsend, S. S. M. & Hamedani, M. Y. G.
2019:
The unseen reason working-class students drop out.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (January 16, 2019). Politico.
2018:
Why do people stay when a hurricane comes?
Stephens, N. M. (September 14, 2018). The New York Times.
2017:
Research: How you feel about individualism is influenced by your social class.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (May 22, 2017). Harvard Business Review.
2016:
The real reasons diversity programs don’t work.
Stephens, N. M., & Apfelbaum, E. (August 16, 2016). Fortune.
2014:
Talk about class.
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., & Destin, M. (March 18, 2014). Inside Higher Ed.
2011:
Stories of choice in India and the US.
Savani, K., Stephens, N. M., & Markus, H. R. (May 4, 2011). Live Mint.
The unseen reason working-class students drop out.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (January 16, 2019). Politico.
2018:
Why do people stay when a hurricane comes?
Stephens, N. M. (September 14, 2018). The New York Times.
2017:
Research: How you feel about individualism is influenced by your social class.
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. M. (May 22, 2017). Harvard Business Review.
2016:
The real reasons diversity programs don’t work.
Stephens, N. M., & Apfelbaum, E. (August 16, 2016). Fortune.
2014:
Talk about class.
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., & Destin, M. (March 18, 2014). Inside Higher Ed.
2011:
Stories of choice in India and the US.
Savani, K., Stephens, N. M., & Markus, H. R. (May 4, 2011). Live Mint.
